Marie Antoinette (b.1755-d.1793) was an Austrian Princess, who, at the age of 15, married Louis XVI of France  in order to strengthen the French monarchy's tie to Austria. Her life was extremely difficult in France because she was in a politically arranged marriage and she did not speak the language or appreciate the culture. The most noteworthy time period of her life occurred during the French Revolution. Her ability to manipulate her husband's Austrian policy placed a strain on her relationship with the French public. Marie-Antoinette's outlandish attire, frivolous manners and slowness in producing an heir further contributed to her lack of popularity.

The queen's lack of popularity was evident from the start, and continued to mount, as her life was almost continually embroiled in scandal. The Diamond Necklace Affair is a perfect example of how the queen's indiscretions and infidelities undercut the authority of the monarch. This affair--in which it was purported that the queen had sold her sexual favors in return for a diamond necklace-- caused many of the public to dub her the "Austrian Whore." Countless pamphlets were published, spreading malicious rumors about the queen. Often, it was jealous courtiers who would instigate the material for these publications.

It was during this same time period that the Louis's financial advisors used some creative financing in an attempt to secure ongoing investments for the crown. The ineffectiveness of this attempt led the monarch to side-step Parliament and create a hand picked assembly. The failures of France's Economic Policy was a fundamental cause of the Revolution

Marie-Antoinette exerted an undeniable influence on Revolutionary politics. It was apparent the country would not feel safe or confident with the monarch while the "Austrian" was queen. On April 20, 1792, France declared war on Austria. The National Assembly took exceptional measures, only to have them vetoed by King Louis. These two vetoes caused a major uproar and many revolutionaries stormed the palace chanting, "The Austrian, where is she?  Her head, her head!" They felt Marie Antoinette's influence was the reason Louis was going easy on Austria. 

Revolutionaries tended to view Marie-Antoinette as thoroughly deserving the treatment that she received. They felt that since she was from Austria, she always influenced the King to be lenient in actions towards the enemy. She was also the reason the revolution escalated, they believed, for she influenced the king to demand the continuation of his absolute power.

When Marie was captured and brought in front of the Revolutionary Tribunal, she knew it would only be a matter of time before she was executed. However, it was during this most difficult stage in her life that Marie-Antoinette was able to become a positive figure for the first time. The courage and compassion she showed on behalf of her children would have made any mother proud.  Despite this new perception, soon Revolutionaries levied many charges against her-- the most heinous of which was that she had sexual relations with her ailing son in hopes that the exertion might kill him. Drunken soldiers or palace servants who wanted to get even with her gave most of the testimony.  The jury convened for only an hour before coming back with a guilty verdict. She was sentenced to death.

On October 16, 1793, Marie-Antoinette was beheaded. It was on this day that France lost one of its most controversial figures. Whether one despised or respected Queen Marie-Antoinette, her role will be argued about for many centuries.

Annotated Bibliography

Anonymous. An Extravagant Life Ended on a Guillotine. Marie Antoinette. [darter.ocps.k12.fl.us/classroom/who/darter1/mant.htm]  [Site no longer exists?].
This Internet site gives a brief biography of Marie-Antoinette. It provides a brief overview of her life and times. It is packed with facts and can be considered very useful for anyone studying this subject. It is a bit choppy in its writing style, however, that is because of all the facts it has listed. The primary sources for this web site came from encyclopedias.

Anonymous. Genealogy of Marie-Antoinette. Marie-Antoinette. [www.widomaker.com/~piso/html/antoinet.html]  [Site no longer exists?].
This Internet site provides a useful and easily understood diagram on Marie- Antoinette's ancestry. It is extremely useful for anyone who is studying her. It traces back her family tree all the way back to Philip of Macedonia. It is done in matrix form and is useful if one needs to know the family line of Marie-Antoinette.

Anonymous. Marie Antoinette. [hss.sd54.bc.ca/School/Pages/student/Humanities/hum9-Renta/marie.htm] [Site no longer exists?].
This website provides a fact-filled biography of Marie-Antoinette. It is very similar to "An Extravagant Life Ended on a Guillotine". However, this biography makes more judgments on the figure in question. This page provides the basics, if one is looking to do more advanced research, this can only be a background builder.

Anonymous. Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette. Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette.[members.aol.com/madameleah/marie.htm] [Site no longer exists?].
This website provides some interesting information, like the sexless Louis and the Jester Marie, that is not found in many other sources. It is definitely a unique page whose information varies from the norm. It will help any person who is trying to get a different perspective on Marie-Antoinette.

Anonymous. Marie-Antoinette Gallery. Marie-Antoinette Gallery. [www.azstarnet. com/~kjkelly/VigeeMAgallery.htm] [Site no longer exists?].
This Internet site provides some pictures of Marie-Antoinette at various stages of her life. This allows a person to see what Marie-Antoinette looked like during various stages of her life. It also explains how each painting was made. It is good for people studding this topic, for it allows them to see how an artist portrayed Marie-Antoinette.

Antoinette, Axel (alias). Marie Antoinette Online--A Biography. October 19 2000. <www.geocities.com/marie_antoinette_ol/biography.htm>  ( November 12, 2000).
This site is pleasantly laid out, with easy-to-understand text and pictures of the French queen and the major actors in her life. It details Marie Antoinette's approach toward every juncture of her career as queen, from her difficulties with Louis, to her boredom with court life, the scandal of the Diamond Necklace Affair, and the escalating hatred of her citizens, which eventually terminated in her execution. This site is an excellent source for research on any aspect of the French queen's life.

Asquith, Annunziata. Marie-Antoinette. New York: Taplinger Publishing Company, 1974.
This is a biography of Marie-Antoinette's youth. The author has aimed at directness, simplicity and speed; events seem to race towards the reader. From the very start the narrative pace hints at the magnetic power of the dreadful climax ahead: the death of Marie-Antoinette. The book is supported in almost every paragraph by a quote from a diary, letter or memoir. This book is of specific importance to this subject because it is written in a scholarly way, providing great primary source details.

Barker, Nancy. "Let Them Eat Cake": The Mythical Marie Antoinette and the French Revolution. Historian (Summer 1993): 709-25
This is a very scholarly article examining the development of the myth in pre-Revolutionary France of a promiscuous, depraved and ruthless Marie Antoinette. Barker outlines several unfortunate facts about Marie Antoinette's background, lifestyle and personality which combined to demonize her in the eyes of her subjects. Barker demonstrates how an unwitting Marie Antoinette's character was distorted so that she became the scapegoat of a populace impatient for change. This article is particularly relevant to those researching such psychological factors as "mob mentality" in history. 

Beik, Paul H. The French Revolution Seen from the RightNew York: Howard Fertig, 1970.
This book provides a philosophical approach to the French Revolution. It was taken from transactions of the American Philosophical Society. The book presents the conflicting social theories of the French Revolution. The author explains why she acted with such  love for Austria, as well as an ostentatious longing for the luxuries of a Queen. The book even goes as far as trying to interpret for the reader what Marie-Antoinette may have been thinking at certain points in her life. This is where the book may be pushing the issue a bit too far; however, since it is written from a philosophical perspective, Beik must feel the necessity to analyze Marie-Antointette.

Blanc, Oliver. Last Letters. New York: Michael D.Capua Books, 1987.
This book is a collection of letters written by actors in  the French Revolution before their deaths. This book is of specific interest to this paper because it includes a letter written by Marie-Antoinette, which explains what she was going through at the time of her death. Through the letter the reader can also get a strong sense of her concern for her children. This book will help anyone looking for some good primary source material on Marie Antoinette's final thoughts.

Castelot, Andre. Queen of France. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1957.
This book is a biography of Marie-Antoinette. It explains her life - from her  birth as an Austrian Princess, to the problems she faced as a girl and up to her life as Queen of France. Her death is also covered in great detail; The author apparently had a mass of documents at his disposal when he wrote this book. He used letters, and court papers all to show the historical background for the time in which Marie-Antoinette lived.

Chew, Robin. "Marie-Antoinette, Queen of France."Lucid Interactive. November 1995. <www2.lucidcafe.com/lucidcafe/library/95nov/antoinette.html> (November 17, 2000).
A brief biography which contains some more background information. This differs from the other two internet biographies in that it looks at Marie-Antoinette's life in the context of the time period. This is an effective method and worth checking out. This site also includes links to the biographies of other famous monarchs, as well as more subjects linked to Marie-Antoinette.

Doyle, William. Origins of the French Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1980.
This book summarizes and explains the progress that historians have made in explaining the origins of the French Revolution. He also attempts to prove how current findings could change our perspective on the Revolution. Doyle's book is important for this paper because he spends time explaining Marie-Antoinette.

Kaplow, Jeffery. France on the Eve of Revolution. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1971.
This book introduces the reader to some of the problems that lead up to the French Revolution. It is a book filled with mini-articles containing such subjects as the decline of French economy, the ineffectiveness of the ruling class, and most notably, overextension of military forces. It is not the easiest book to read but it is extremely worthwhile since it takes into account more than one author's point of view regarding Marie Antoinette.

Kelly, KJ. "The Art of Elizabeth Louise Vigee LeBrun." (3 November 2000) BatguanoWebworks <http://www.batguano.com/vigee.html> (Nov. 17, 2000).

Loomis, Stanley. The Fatal Friendship. Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1972.
This book details the friendship of a young Swedish nobleman, Count Axel Fersen , and the soon-to-be Queen of France, Marie-Antoinette. The Fatal Friendship is the story of the intimacy that developed between them, and the consequences of this relationship. They tried to resist the temptation but they failed. Therefore, when they had to leave each others company, both became depressed. This is important to this paper because it shows the human side to Marie-Antoinette, and how love affected her life.

Lucas-Dubreton, J. The Restoration and the July Monarchy. London: William Heinemann, Ltd., 1929.
This book begins with the Restoration of the Bourbons to the throne of France. It also deals with the ill-fated July Monarchy. Its 18 year period is chronicled here. This is a very readable book and should serve any person well who has interest in this period of French History. Although this is after Marie-Antoinette's time, it nonetheless serves a crucial role in understanding her. This book provides information about the exhumation of her body. This helps a person who is interested in researching Marie-Antoinette because it provides some details of the legacy that she left behind. This legacy was present in spite of her death and the way many people felt about her. Love her or hate her she was immortalized in time, and this time period started that process.

Manceron, Claude. Twilight of the Old Order. New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1977.
This book sets the table for the revolution which is to come. The problems are discussed, the major players have been introduced and the plot is put into motion. The author tries to convey the horrifying fact that this revolution is inevitable. The book is written with great description and attention to detail. It provides an interesting outlook on this time period. It is important to this paper because it tells how she gained the throne and some of the decisions she made thereafter. The decision of greatest importance was that of influencing lenient policy towards her native land, Austria.

Merrick. Jeffrey. "The Family Politics of the Marquis deBombelles." Journal of Family History. 21 (October 1996): 503-518.
This journal article is about the diary of Marc-Marie deBombelles, Marie Antoinette's son. He provides, through his diary, a sense of his home life. This is of specific important to this paper because it talks of Marie-Antoinette as a bad mother.

Rouart, Jean-Marie. "A New View of the Frivolous Queen." World Press Review. (January 1994, 46.
This article demonstrates that it was the myths surrounding her, and not her otherwise obscure life, which transformed Marie Antoinette in a legendary figure following her death. Rouart states that her story (which he summarizes) captures public imagination because the circumstances of her time pitted her between two vastly different worlds: the idyllic life of Versailles and the bloody anarchy of the Revolution. The article analyzes the primacy of legend over actual events. 

Saint-Amand, Pierre. "Terrorizing Marie-Antoinette."  Critical Inquiry 20 (Spring 1994): 379-400.
This journal article compares the situation of Marie-Antoinette during the French Revolution to that of Hillary Clinton today. It is  an important article because it compares the politics of yesteryear to today. The article is very well written and keeps the reader intrigued. 

Salvemini, Gaetano. The French Revolution: 1788-1792. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1954.
This book is concerned with the French Revolution, or the attempt to forcibly overthrow the French monarchy. It explains why the feudal monarchy was destroyed. It also goes into the philosophical aspects as to why the revolution was occurred at all. All in all, it tries to condense the whole French Revolution into one book. It is done very effectively with the exception of the language. At several points, the author uses word choices that aren't common to our society today, they may have been used directly by the people involved in the revolution or it just may be the authors way of showing what that time period was like. It is important to this paper because it provides a historical account of Marie-Antoinette during this time period.

Schama, Simon. Citizens. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989.
This book was written as an attempt to reappraise the French Revolution and to push the argument one step further than ever before. This book can be difficult to read in sections, but it does provide a new look at the French Revolution. It is applicable to this paper because it provides somewhat of a different view of Marie-Antoinette. This book, more than most, focuses only on her in relationship to the history of the period.

Schneider, Marcel." Lost in Versailles." World Press Review. (January 1994): 46.
This short article reflects on how Marie Antoinette's personality, her manner at court and her incompatible marriage to King Louis all conspired to lead to her downfall. Schneider paints a picture of a queen whose self-indulgent and carefree nature aggravated the already tense political situation in France. He takes a sympathetic view o Marie Antoinette's fate, particularly in mentioning that envious courtiers contributed to the scandalous rumors that surrounded the queen. This is a good site for people interested in the "clashing personalities" aspect of the events.

Sole, Jacques. Questions of the French Revolution. New York: Pantheon Books; 1989.
This is an easy to read book that will provide the reader with everything he or she would like to know about the French Revolution. Sole also spends time giving important information about Marie-Antoinette. He tells of her supposed wild sexual life style and her relationship with the King. This author does not seem to think her sexual lifestyle was as wild as many may want to think.

Stone, Bailey. The Genis of the French Revolution. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
This book draws upon the historiography of the French Revolution as well as other scholarship, in order to develop an interpretation of the French Revolution's genesis that historians would view as "global historical". This book focuses more on the state's role in the revolution as compared to the societies. This book can become confusing for readers with no prior knowledge of the subject. However, it does provide us with valuable historical information on Marie-Antoinette.

Yapp, Hentyle; Nong, Chantal;  Salas, Julia; and Chen, Edward. "Marie-Antoinette - A Whore." The Webb Schools. [www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5154> (17 November 2000).
This website was a controversial biography of the two prominent figures in the French Revolution. The page is haphazardly edited and contains some typographical errors. In spite of the editing mistakes this page does contain some useful biographical information. However, it is extremely similar to Marie Antoinette.

Yalom, Marilyn. Blood Sisters. New York: Basic Books, 1993.
This book is the entire study of memoirs of prominent women during the time of the French Revolution. It serves a great source for anyone who is interested in studying women of this time period. It is of specific importance to this paper because it includes memoirs of Marie-Antoinette. It provides actual primary source documentation written by her, this is extremely valuable for anyone researching this topic.

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URL: http://departments.kings.edu/womens_history/marieantoi.html Written by Thomas J. Gilroy, 1998 Revised by Dawn Drumin, November 2000 Last Revision: 14 January 2005 Copyright © MMV Prof. Pavlac's Women's History Site