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Perhaps one of the most important leaders of the Russian Empire, Catherine
the Second, or "The Great," helped set the foundations for the Russian
“Westernization” in the 19th and 20th centuries. Known for her
intelligence and ambitions to rule the Russian Empire, Catherine not only
challenged the social norms of the time but also set the precedent for women in
powerful positions. Catherine ruled through corruption,
scandal, political reforms, and land expansion. She consolidated
power from the serfs and feudal lords by continuing the political reforms
started by Peter the Great. Land expansion dramatically increased during
the Polish civil war in the late 1760's and again in 1768 when a Russian victory
over the Ottoman Empire resulted in new territory stretching to the banks of the
Born on May 2, 1729, in the German city of Stettin (Szczecin, Poland
today), into the family of Prince Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, Catherine
was christened Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst a daughter of a minor German prince in
Prussian service. Immediately
following her birth Sophie faced many challenges in a society which legally
subjugating its woman population.
Although she had society stacked against her, she was recognized by her
father for her great ability to learn and remember concepts and ideas. Only after she had proven her abilities
did she receive formal education.
In 1744, she married Grand Duke Peter of
Using her sexuality to obtain legitimacy for her position, Catherine was
encouraged to produce an heir to the line.
In 1754, during an affair with Sergey Saltykov, Catherine bore a child
named Paul. It is not altogether
clear whether Paul is the legitimate son of her husband Peter, or the son of
Saltykov. Emperior
Peter III and Catherine II came to power in 1761 after Empress Elizabeth
died. The marriage to Peter was
further put into jeopardy because Peter was ill equipped to handle ruling Russia
Empire. Lacking common sense and
alienating the
In its own right the reign of Catherine the Great was impressive, but it was
made all the more important because she was a women. She continued Peter the Great's
reforms of the Russian state, further increasing central control over the
provinces. Her goal was to rationalize and reform the administration of the
Russian Empire. One of the most prosperous periods for
Alexander, John T. Catherine the Great: Life
and Legend. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
Alexander
examines the life of Catherine the Great in general, but pays particular
attention to issues which other books on Catherine usually omit. He first
focuses on her involvement in the coup d'etat: a conspiracy against her husband
Peter III. Alexander discusses Catherine's concern with the crisis in public
health in Russia, including her attempts to fight smallpox, pestilence, and the
plague. Catherine had many lovers throughout her life and Alexander includes the
love notes written to Peter Zavadovski from the years 1776 to 1777. Alexander
attacks the stories of Catherine's involvement with bestiality. He assures
readers that Catherine did not die while attempting to have sexual intercourse
with a horse, but rather after suffered from an attack of apoplexy while sitting
on her commode. Alexander not only discusses Catherine's life while she was
Empress of Russia, but he also discusses her impact in the later centuries on
stage and screen, sculpture, and painting.
Ashby, Ruth and Ohrn, Deborah Gore, ed. Herstory, Women Who
Change the World. New York: Viking, 1995.
This is a great
resource for understanding the basic information on Catherine the Great.
This short, but to the point summary of her life is very good at providing a
starting point for research on this person. Only basic information is
given, but it does do a good job of providing information to anyone on any
reading level. No prior knowledge or advanced education in necessary to
understand this work. This is a good resource to start off with to guide a
person on for a more in-depth research.
Cowles, Virginia. The Romanovs. New York, N.Y.: Harper and Row,
1971.
This book concentrates on the lives of those related to the Romanov
dynasty. Chapter IV is dedicated to Catherine The Great. Cowles focuses on
Catherine's promiscuity. She goes as far as to call Catherine a nymphomaniac.
When Catherine's husband took the throne of Russia, Catherine was pregnant with
Grigory Orlov's child. After Orlov's involvement in overthrowing her husband
from the throne of Russia, Catherine refused to marry him. In the latter portion
of the book she discusses Catherine's relationship with Grigory Potemkin. He was
referred to as the "cyclops of the court." He had lost an eye, and one of the
stories blames the loss of this eye on Catherine's former lover, Grigory Orlov.
Potemkin apparently was involved in a fight with the Orlov brothers. Although it
is believed Catherine never remarried after Peter III, many letters written to
Potemkin address him as 'dear husband,' 'beloved husband' and she alludes to
herself as 'your wife.' Cowles also examines her love of art and literature,
including her correspondences with Voltaire and Diderot. Through her love of
writing, Catherine poured her heart out in letters and memoirs. Despite her
hatred of France, Catherine embraced the French language and culture. French was
the language of her court. Catherine thought of herself as a liberal. The book
features many color photographs that were specially commissioned by Russian born
photographer, Victor Kennet.
Dixon, Ursula. "Catherine the Great." Ursula's History Web.
<http://members.tripod.com/~Nevermore/CGREAT.HTM> (9 Nov
2005).
This web site by Dixon, a historian, discusses Catherine the Great
and provides personal opinions of her. It contains an analysis of her ruling
style, along with information about her marriage, the birth of her son, the
reign of Peter III, and her reign as Empress. It includes pictures of her and
those who were closely related to her and provides a bibliography. Dixon
believes that Russia owes her much for her reign and that she truly earned the
title "the Great." Dixon also believes that too many judge her for having
promiscuous relationships while she may have just been filling her lonely hours
by sharing her intellect with these men. She believes that in order to judge her
greatness and see her achievements, one must distinguish between Catherine the
woman and Catherine the Empress.
Gooch, G.P. Catherine The Great and Other Studies. Hamden,
CT: Archon Books, 1966.
Gooch refers to Catherine as one of the three
celebrated 'Philosophic Despots' of the eighteenth century. Gooch questions
whether or not Catherine's son Paul was the legitimate heir of Peter III, or the
son of one of Catherine's lovers. He further examines the poor relationship
between Catherine and her son. Despite other author's accusations of Catherine's
hatred of France, Gooch devotes a whole chapter to Catherine's sympathy towards
Marie Antoinette and her troubles resulting from the French Revolution. She is
quoted as admiring her. The book begins to lose its focus on Catherine after
discussing her relationship with Voltaire. The book goes on to discuss French
salons and Otto von Bismark of Germany. There is a substantial section dedicated
to Voltaire and his work as a historian. There is an index to further help the
reader but there is no bibliography nor are there any footnotes.
Haslip, Joan. Catherine The Great. New York: G.P.
Putnam's Sons, 1976.
The author of this work provides a very good
detailed analysis of the life of Catherine the Great Great emphasis is placed on
her thirty-four year reign. This in-depth analysis of one of the greatest
rulers of the Russian Empire attempts to understand the character of Catherine
the Great. Much of the resources in this book came from the Polish
historian Monsieur Walezewski, who wrote a biography about her. The
information in the work is good but a bit dated. In addition to this, this
work requires an advanced knowledge about Catherine and the political and
economic climate of the time period. In all this is a well written piece
of work.
Kaus, Gina. Catherine: The Portrait of an Empress. New York: The
Viking Press, 1935.
Kaus pays a great deal of attention to Catherine's
early life. Her relationship with her siblings and the poor relationship she had
with her father discussed in detail. Catherine hungered for love, something she
would struggle with for her whole life. She desired a husband who would provide
her with a crown more dazzling than that of Zerbst, in her native land of
Germany. Her marriage to Peter III was a failure but provided her with the crown
of Russia. Her extramarital affairs are discussed. After the conspiracy against
her husband was successfully carried out, the Imperial Guards proclaimed her the
sole ruler of Russia. There was an intense hatred between Catherine and her son
Paul, and because of this, Catherine planned to make her grandson, Alexander,
the successor to the throne of Russia. Grigory Potemkin loved and admired her as
no one else in Catherine's life. A number of illustrations are included as well
as an index.
Kornilov, Alexander. Modern Russian History. New
York: Russell & Russell, 1970.
This work is an historical
analysis of the progression from the medieval Russian Empire to the fall of the
Empire to the communists. This compressive work devoted about to the
achievements and importance of Catherine's thirty-four year reign. This
work although very good, it does require advanced knowledge of Russian history
and the political climate of the time. This work stresses Catherine's
importance in land reforms, political reforms, education reforms, financial
reforms, and cultural reforms. It credits Catherine for forging a strong
national state, extending the borders, the start of capitalism, and land
reforms.
Lentin, Tony. "The Return of Catherine The Great." History Today,
December 1996, 16-20.
This article celebrates the bicentenary year of her
death. There is suddenly a new wave of scholarly interest after an international
conference in St. Petersburg. The article focuses on her accomplishments during
her reign. She provided Russia with three and a half decades of political
stability. She dedicated herself to the Enlightenment and putting those ideas
into practice through legislation. She believed passionately in the power of the
printed word. She encouraged book production and the translation of foreign
works into Russian. The article highlights some of Catherine's most important
reforms brought about during her reign. It also refers to some of the newest
sources available on Catherine The Great and Lentin includes them in his
citations.
Madariaga, Isabel De. Catherine the Great. New Haven,
London: Yale University Press, 1990.
Madariaga's work is a great
resource for understanding the life and importance Catherine the Great was to
the Russian Empire. This work not only identifies her achievement but it
also describes in detail her she came to power in Russia. A great emphasis
is places on two areas in the work, first her achievements as a ruler and second
her achievements as a women ruler. Focusing on Catherine's education,
social, and economic policies, this work fully illustrates her accomplishments
as a leader of an empire. In addition to this, the author details how
important she was because she was a women. This greatly enhances the work
of Madariaga and further makes this a good resource.
Masson, Charles. Secret Memoirs of the Court of Petersburg.
2nd ed. New York, N.Y.: Arno Press, 1970.
Masson examines
Catherine's " favorites " or lovers whom she held in high esteem during her
life. There are also documents, which question whether Russia would suffer the
same fate as France and succumb to revolution. Chapter six examines the
conditions in Russia that might have led up to a revolution. Masson comments on
the debauchery occurring in Russia that went seemingly unpunished. Masson
discusses female run governments in general and especially the female leaders of
Russia before Catherine II. Catherine The Great tried to better the lives of
Russian women. She gave them some positions of power and founded the Smol'ny
Institute, Russia's first girls' school, in 1769. Catherine's love for knowledge
and education were to be passed along to her grandsons but not in such elaborate
fashion as she had planned. Their education was based on the great thinkers such
as Locke, and Rousseau. Catherine imported many French scholars to educate the
Russians, and he contributes this as a factor to why so many Russians, including
Catherine, were taken by French culture. This book focuses in general on the
influences in Catherine's life.
O'Malley, Lurana Donnels. "Masks of the Empress." Comparative
Drama, Spring 1997, 65-85.
O'Malley reviews Catherine The Great's
first play, Oh These Times. She discusses Catherine's use of plays as a
way of expressing her political messages and priorities. Her attitude toward
superstition and her attitude towards Moscow are major themes of the play.
Moscow signified everything that needed change in her Enlightened Russia. The
play also is a reflection of her moral and religious beliefs. This article
enlightens the reader to yet, another of Catherine's talents. This article is an
example of one of the enjoyments of Catherine's life and how she used it to
further influence the lives of her subjects.
Pallasart Web Design. "Empress Catherine II "the Great" <http://www.alexanderpalace.org/palace/catherine.html>
(24 October 2005).
This is a very useful website which gives an accurate
account of Catherine's life. This basic biography does little in the
analysis of her rule but basic biographical information is useful. This is
a good resource for starting the research on Catherine's life and her
accomplishment The site is well kept and informative but it is not known
how often it is updated. Also contained on this site is a list of other
Russian rulers.
Raeff, Marc. "Autocracy Tempered by Reform or Regicide." The American
Historical Review, October 1993, 1143-55.
The article examines the
neglect of Catherine the Great's reign in Russia. He discusses new biographies
written about the successive rule of Catherine II, Peter III, and Paul I. Raeff
blames Communism for the neglect of this period of Russian History. With
Communism's collapse in Russia there is now a renewed interest in people such as
Catherine the Great.
Reddaway, W.F. Documents of Catherine The Great. New York:
1971.
This book was written in French, and later translated into English.
The book is a reproduction of the correspondences between Catherine and Voltaire
between the years 1762 and 1777. The letters reveal Catherine's philosophies in
law, punishment, trade and commerce, and education. The book discusses Peter the
Great's inspiration in regard to Catherine's projected code. Reddaway offers his
commentary and analysis after each chapter. A timeline relevant to the
correspondence of Catherine and Voltaire is included at the end of the book. It
includes what was happening in philosophy, in Britain, within the European
continent, and in Russia.
StanKlos.com. "Catherine the Great, Ekaterina Alexeevna, 1729-1796,
Empress Of All Russia." Virtualology. 2000. <http://www.virtualology.com/virtualmuseumofhistory/internationalhall/worldleaders/CATHERINETHEGREAT.ORG/>
(9 November 2005).
A picture of her autograph and briefly annotated links
to several other sites.
"The Empress of Opera." Civilization, 1 February
1997, 15.
Although the article is short in length, it discusses some
important elements of Catherine's life. For example, her correspondence with
French philosophers and the many lovers she had throughout her life are
examined. Supposedly tone-deaf, Catherine devoted some of her time to opera. She
wrote librettos for operas that were composed by musicians who she imported to
St. Petersburg. Her most extravagant work was the dramatic History of
Oleg. Oleg was a ninth-century Russian prince. Her work expressed her
political views. The article makes it a point to mention that since she was
Empress, she could easily get her librettos published. Despite this fact,
contemporary audiences applauded her work.
Thomson, Gladys Scott. Catherine the Great and the Expansion of
Russia. Aylesbury, London: English Universities Press, LTD.,
1950.
Thomson presents a thorough view of Catherine the Great from her
childhood until her death. Thomson discusses Catherine's young life in Germany
and her incompatibility with Peter III. Thomson attributes reading as the basis
for her involvement in politics. A major portion of the book is spent on her
foreign policy and her dealings with Lithuania, Poland, and the defeat of
Turkey. The relationship between Grigory Potemkin is discussed in great detail.
The book also examines the continuation of Peter The Great's improvements and
modernization of Russia. Because of this concept of modernization, Catherine
built statues and public gardens and promoted music, theater, and dancing. She
built an academy to supervise all the branches of art throughout Russia. She
also founded a royal school of theater. Catherine was especially concerned with
smallpox and plague, so she stimulated improvements in the science of medicine.
The relationship between Catherine and her grandsons is another section of
importance in this book. There is an annotated bibliography included at the end
of the book for further reading on Catherine The Great.
U.S. Library of Congress. "Early Imperial Russia."Country Studies US.
n.d. <http://countrystudies.us/russia/4.htm> (9 November 2005).
This site focuses on the Imperial Expansion of Russia during the
reigns of Peter the Great and Catherine the Great. It describes the annexation
of many areas as the result of various treaties, as well as the the results from
partitioning Poland. It also discusses the Pugachev Uprising which led to
Catherine's determination to reorganize Russia's administration. Overall it
shows how Catherine set the foundation for the nineteenth century empire. It
provides useful information about Catherine's role in Russia and her attempt to
make its administration more effective.
Van de Pas, Leo. "Catherine II "the Great." Worldroots. http://worldroots.com/brigitte/gifs/cath2russia.jpg. (9
November 2005).
On a site about the ancestors and relations to the
author, he includes a portrait of the elderly monarch.
Waliszewski, K. The Romance of an Empress. New York: D. Appleton
and Company, 1905.
Although this book was dedicated to Catherine's entire
life, chapter eleven provided valuable insight to Catherine as a writer. It was
in her works written for the stage that the pen of Catherine is most
prolific(p356). She does a bit of everything in literature, but she concentrated
especially on dramatic writing. She wrote plays that were satirical,
philosophical, social, or religious. Waliszewski provides the reader with a
detailed account of Catherine's life. Its only flaw is that there is no
bibliography, index, or endnotes of any kind.
| This page has had hits since 15 December 2005. | URL:
http://departments.kings.edu/womens_history/catherine.html Original Written by Melissa Toscani, 1998 Revised by Tricia Tait, November 2000 Revised by Andrew Wakefield December 2005 Last Revision: 2010 May 20 Copyright © MMIIII Prof. Pavlac's Women's History Site 
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Empress Catherine II "The Great"
of Russia
